For generations, Kashmir has been regarded as a land of abundant water. Snow-covered mountains, perennial streams, springs, wetlands and the Jhelum created a landscape in which water appeared almost inexhaustible. Villages depended on springs, agriculture relied on rainfall and irrigation, and groundwater remained largely invisible in public discussions.
That sense of abundance is becoming less certain.
Recent winters have brought significant precipitation deficits, while unusually low flows have been observed in parts of the Jhelum and declining discharge has been reported from several springs. The episode of drying of the historic spring at Achabal Mughal Garden has provided another visible reminder that Kashmir’s water systems are changing.
These developments raise a question that deserves much greater attention : what happens to the water beneath our feet when the water above ground becomes less predictable.
Groundwater may be invisible, but it is an integral part of Kashmir’s hydrological system. Rainfall and snowmelt infiltrate the soil and underlying geological formations, replenishing aquifers. Groundwater then moves slowly through these formations and can emerge naturally through springs, sustain streams during dry periods and interact with wetlands and rivers.
Wells and boreholes provide another pathway through which this stored water reaches the surface. In other words, Kashmir’s groundwater cannot be separated from its mountains, forests, soils, wetlands, springs and rivers. It is part of the same water cycle. That is why groundwater deserves to be treated as strategic natural infrastructure rather than simply as a backup source when surface water becomes inadequate.
Available groundwater assessment figures do not suggest that Kashmir is presently experiencing widespread groundwater over-exploitation. Recent assessment figures indicate annual groundwater recharge of approximately 2.30 billion cubic metres, with around 2.07 billion cubic metres considered extractable. Groundwater extraction has been estimated at about 24.73 per cent of the annual extractable resource.
The latest assessment has also reportedly classified all 149 groundwater assessment units in Jammu and Kashmir as “safe”, with none categorised as over-exploited, critical or semi-critical.
These figures are important. They indicate that, at the broad regional level, Kashmir and J & K in general still possess considerable groundwater resources.
But a regional classification should not be confused with a guarantee of local water security. Groundwater is not distributed uniformly. Aquifers differ in geological structure, depth, recharge capacity, connectivity and vulnerability to contamination. A regional assessment can therefore appear healthy while individual springs, aquifers, villages or urban areas experience declining water levels or deteriorating quality.
The real question is not simply how much groundwater J & K has. It is where it is, how rapidly it is being replenished, how much is being withdrawn and what condition it is in. That requires much finer-scale monitoring. One of the clearest ways to observe changes in groundwater is through springs.
A spring is not simply a source of water emerging from the ground. It is often the visible outlet of an underground hydrological system. Its discharge reflects the interaction between precipitation, snowmelt, soil, rock formations and groundwater storage. Recent reports have highlighted substantial reductions in discharge at several monitored springs. Colony Bagh in Baramulla has reportedly recorded a decline of more than 74 per cent, while Parigam Bala in Kulgam has experienced a reported decline of more than 42 per cent.
Cheshmashahi in Srinagar has also shown a reported reduction. Such figures require scientific interpretation. Spring discharge naturally varies with season, rainfall, snowmelt and local geology, and a single observation cannot establish a long-term trend. However, persistent declines at monitored springs should not be dismissed.
Springs can function as natural indicators of changes in catchment and groundwater conditions. Their decline warrants investigation into rainfall patterns, snow accumulation, land-use change, groundwater abstraction, catchment degradation and changes in recharge. Kashmir already has an extensive network of traditional springs. Systematically monitoring them could therefore provide valuable information about changing hydrological conditions at a relatively local scale.
The problem is not only climate variability. The physical transformation of the landscape is also changing the movement of water. As towns expand, agricultural land and open spaces are replaced by buildings, roads, parking areas and other impervious surfaces. Rain that once infiltrated gradually into the soil is increasingly diverted into drains and channels.
This has an obvious consequence : greater surface runoff and a higher risk of urban flooding. There is also a less visible consequence. Reduced infiltration can diminish the amount of rainfall entering shallow groundwater systems. This creates an important connection between two problems that are often treated separately – urban flooding and groundwater recharge. Kashmir therefore needs to move beyond the idea that stormwater is simply something to be removed as quickly as possible. Where geology and water quality conditions permit, a proportion of rainfall should be retained, infiltrated or temporarily stored through properly designed blue-green infrastructure. Permeable surfaces, restored ponds, recharge areas, urban wetlands and infiltration zones can contribute to this objective. But artificial recharge should never be undertaken blindly. Water quality, soil conditions and aquifer characteristics must first be understood. Contaminated urban runoff should not be deliberately directed into groundwater.
The principle should be straightforward- Know the aquifer before attempting to recharge it.
Wetlands are part of the water-security system. Kashmir’s wetlands are generally discussed in terms of biodiversity, migratory birds and flood protection. Their importance to the wider hydrological system deserves equal attention. Wetlands, floodplains, ponds, marshes and permeable landscapes can temporarily store water and influence the movement of surface and subsurface water. Their exact relationship with groundwater differs from one location to another and depends on geology and hydrology. But the broader principle is clear – destroying natural water-storage areas reduces the landscape’s capacity to manage water.
When wetlands are encroached upon, floodplains are built over, ponds disappear and natural drainage channels are altered, Kashmir loses components of its natural water-management infrastructure. Protecting these systems is therefore not merely an environmental obligation. It is also a water-security measure. Groundwater management cannot be effective without reliable information. A parliamentary report has highlighted that J & K had 75 groundwater monitoring units against a target of 95. Whether groundwater is classified as “safe” or otherwise ultimately depends on the quality and spatial coverage of the information being collected. Kashmir needs a modern groundwater monitoring network capable of measuring seasonal and long-term changes in groundwater levels, spring discharge, extraction and water quality.
Continuous digital water-level recorders can provide much more useful information than occasional measurements. These observations should be combined with rainfall, snow-cover, soil-moisture, geology, land-use and satellite data.
Geographical Information Systems and remote sensing can help identify recharge zones, vulnerable aquifers and areas undergoing rapid land-use change. Most importantly, groundwater management should move towards an aquifer-based approach.
Administrative boundaries do not determine the boundaries of an aquifer. A village, town or district may share the same groundwater system with neighbouring areas. Management therefore needs to follow the hydrogeological system rather than simply the administrative map.
Water quality cannot be ignored. Quantity is only one part of groundwater security.
Recent parliamentary report has also raised concerns about groundwater-quality contamination, including an arsenic figure of 11.76 per cent in tested groundwater samples or pockets. Such figures must be interpreted carefully as they refer to sampled locations and cannot be taken to mean that 11.76 per cent of all groundwater in Jammu and Kashmir is contaminated. This distinction is scientifically important.
Groundwater quality can vary considerably according to geology, depth, land use and local sources of contamination. Iron, salinity and other contaminants may also occur in particular locations. As groundwater use expands, therefore, every borewell should not be viewed merely as a source of water. Its depth, geological setting, water quality and long-term sustainability also need to be understood. Kashmir’s agricultural and horticultural economy is particularly dependent on reliable water.
Better soil management can play an important role in maintaining this reliability. Increasing soil organic matter, maintaining vegetation cover, reducing unnecessary soil compaction and improving soil structure can increase the soil’s capacity to retain moisture. For orchards and agricultural fields, efficient irrigation and improved soil-water management can reduce unnecessary withdrawals during dry periods. The objective should not simply be to obtain more water. It should be to use available water more efficiently while protecting the systems that replenish it.
The opportunity to act is now.
Kashmir is fortunate that its groundwater situation, at the broad regional level, has not yet reached the severe stage seen in some heavily exploited parts of India. That makes the present moment particularly important. Water policy often becomes reactive. Wells are drilled when springs fail. Tankers are deployed when supplies become inadequate. New infrastructure is built when demand has already exceeded the capacity of existing sources.
Groundwater management should work differently.
It should anticipate stress rather than wait for crisis.
Kashmir needs a long-term groundwater strategy built around four principles – measure what is beneath us, protect where water enters the ground, regulate extraction where local conditions require it and continuously monitor water quality. This should be integrated with wetland conservation, spring restoration, forest and catchment protection, sustainable agriculture, urban planning and climate adaptation.
The broader objective is to recognise that Kashmir’s water does not exist in separate compartments. Snow becomes runoff. Runoff infiltrates soil. Infiltrated water replenishes groundwater. Groundwater feeds springs and in some settings, sustains streams and wetlands. Rivers eventually carry water through the Valley and beyond.
Disturb one part of this system and the consequences can appear somewhere else.
The challenge before Kashmir is therefore not simply to find more water. It is to understand the water cycle well enough to protect it.
Groundwater may remain hidden beneath our fields, orchards, towns and roads, but it is part of the natural infrastructure that makes life in Kashmir possible. The time has come to bring it into the centre of our water planning.
Kashmir’s water security will depend not only on protecting the rivers and springs we can see, but also on understanding and protecting the aquifers we cannot.
The writer is a busninessman. mauzambakshi@gmail.com
