By: Dr. Rajkumar Singh
Feminism in India is a movement shaped by the country’s social, political, and economic realities. It has evolved over different phases, addressing issues unique to Indian women, such as caste, religion, and economic disparity, alongside more global concerns of gender equality.
The developmental aspect of it in India include, during its first wave (19th to early 20th century), Social Reform Movements while the key issues were Sati (widow immolation), child marriage, education for women, widow remarriage. The pioneers were Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Jyotirao Phule, Savitribai Phule, and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and itsachievements included Ban on sati (1829), introduction of the Widow Remarriage Act (1856), and establishment of schools for girls.
This wave was led mainly by men from social reform movements who campaigned for basic rights for women within the framework of a patriarchal society.
The Second Wave (Post-Independence Era – 1947 to 1980s) sawkey issues includingpolitical participation, equal rights in education and employment, dowry-related violence, family laws, and reproductive rights. The pioneers were Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, Aruna Asaf Ali, and the All India Women’s Conference.
This also ensured Indian Constitution (1950) that guaranteedequality before law and non-discrimination based on gender. The Hindu Code Bills (1955-56)addressed inheritance, divorce, and marriage rights. Emergence of women’s organizations like SEWA (Self-Employed Women’s Association) in 1972, focused on labour issues.
Third Wave (1980s to 1990s): The key issues in the tird wave were Dowry deaths, sexual violence, domestic violence, and workplace harassment. Movements that influenced this wave included Mathura Rape Case (1972) thattriggered nationwide protests, leading to reforms in rape laws in 1983. Anti-Dowry Movement resulted in the Dowry Prohibition Act amendments. Emergence of autonomous women’s groups such as Saheli, Forum against oppression of women was also shaped. This period also saw intersectionality taking root, as feminists began addressing how caste, class, and religion shaped women’s experiences.
Fourth Wave (2000s to Present): The key issues include Gender identity and expression, sexual harassment (e.g., #MeToo), LGBTQ+ rights, caste-based gender oppression, body politics, and digital activism. The key events and developments include #MeToo Movement (2018) thatamplified the conversation on sexual harassment. In the Transgender Rights realm the passage of the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019 came into force. Rise in female political representation, activism, and leadership roles in industries was seen.
Feminism in India reflects the diversity of its people and strives to address the complexities of gender inequality within its historical, social, and cultural context. Feminism has played a crucial role in the development of women in India by advocating for gender equality and challenging patriarchal structures that have historically limited women’s opportunities. Impacts of feminism in context of Indian women include: a. Education: Early Efforts: Reformers like Savitribai Phule and Jyotirao Phule fought for girls’ education in the 19th century. The establishment of schools for girls and efforts to destigmatize female literacy began to open up opportunities.
Post-Independence: The Indian Constitution guarantees the right to education for all, and various policies like the National Policy on Education (1986) aimed to close the gender gap in education.
Employment and Economic Empowerment: Economic empowerment is central to the development of women in India, and feminist movements have played a pivotal role in securing women’s rights in the workforce. Feminists have fought for labour rights, leading to the introduction of laws like the Equal Remuneration Act (1976), which mandates equal pay for equal work, and the Maternity Benefit Act (1961), which provides maternity leave and benefits for working women.
Groups like SEWA (Self-Employed Women’s Association) have worked towards organizing women in the informal sector, providing them with access to microfinance, skills training, and legal support. Feminist efforts have encouraged women’s entrepreneurship through policies and schemes such as Stand-Up India and Mudra Yojana, designed to provide credit and support for women entrepreneurs.
Legal Rights and Gender Justice: Marriage and Family Law: Feminist campaigns have led to reforms in family law, including the Hindu Code Bills (1950s), which granted women rights in marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Similar reforms have been sought for women governed by Muslim, Christian, and Parsi personal laws.
Political Representation and Leadership: Reservation in Panchayats: The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments (1992) reserve 33% of seats for women in local governing bodies (Panchayats), significantly increasing female political representation in rural areas.
Political Leadership: More women are now entering politics, though their numbers remain low compared to men. Notable women leaders like Indira Gandhi, Jayalalithaa, Mayawati, and Mamata Banerjee have held high offices, showcasing the growing political influence of women. In conclusion, feminism has been a powerful force in shaping the development of women in India, contributing to significant progress in education, health, employment, and legal rights.
Challenges in India
The feminist movement in India has made significant progress, but it faces several challenges rooted in the country’s socio-cultural, political, and economic landscape. These challenges include: a. Deep-Rooted Patriarchy and Social Norms: Traditional Gender Roles: Patriarchal beliefs about women’s roles as caregivers and homemakers persist, making it difficult for feminist ideas to take root across all sections of society. Resistance to Change: Families and communities often view feminist ideas as disruptive to traditional values, leading to resistance at both individual and institutional levels. b. Caste, Class, and Regional Inequalities.
Intersectional Oppression: Dalit, Adivasi, and marginalized women face multiple layers of discrimination—not only as women but also because of their caste and class. Feminist movements often struggle to address these intersecting identities effectively.
Urban-Rural Divide: Issues of rural women (such as access to education, healthcare, and sanitation) differ significantly from those of urban women, requiring different strategies and solutions.
Economic Inequality: Feminist struggles are often dominated by middle- and upper-class voices, marginalizing the experiences of women from working-class backgrounds or informal sectors.
Political and Legal Barriers: Incomplete Legal Implementation: While India has progressive laws, such as the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005) and Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act (2013), enforcement is often weak, with delays in justice and systemic biases.
Lack of Political Will: Gender reforms often take a backseat due to political priorities. For example, the Women’s Reservation Bill (proposing 33% reservation for women in Parliament) took over two decades to pass.
Fragmentation within the Movement and Lack of Unity Across Groups: Feminist movements in India are often fragmented along ideological lines (e.g., liberal, socialist, Dalit feminism). This diversity enriches the movement but can also create divisions that hinder collective action.
Generational Differences: Newer generations of feminists may focus on issues like LGBTQ+ rights and body positivity, while older activists emphasize political and legal reforms, leading to differing priorities within the movement.
Autonomous Movements vs. Institutional Feminism: Grassroots activism sometimes finds itself at odds with institutionalized feminist organizations that may pursue top-down approaches. The feminist movement in India faces multiple challenges, but its resilience, diversity, and adaptability allow it to navigate these obstacles.
The writer is a youth motivator and former Head of Department of Political Science, B.N. Mandal University, Madhepura, Bihar, India.
